Binomial Nomenclature : Naming of Living Organisms - Scientific Names

 Binomial Nomenclature

Binomial nomenclature is a system of naming species of living organisms using two terms, one for the genus and one for the species. This system was developed by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century and is still widely used today.

 

The first part of a scientific name is the genus, which is always capitalized, and the second part is the species, which is not capitalized. Both names are usually in Latin, although they can be in any language as long as they are consistently used. For example, the scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens, where Homo is the genus and sapiens is the species.

 

Binomial nomenclature has several advantages over common names for organisms. First, it provides a standardized way of referring to organisms that is universally understood by scientists around the world. This is especially important when communicating research findings or when discussing organisms that have different common names in different languages. Second, it eliminates confusion and ambiguity that can arise from different organisms having the same common name. Third, it provides a way of identifying and classifying organisms that is based on their evolutionary relationships, rather than their appearance or behavior.

 

Binomial nomenclature is based on the Linnaean classification system, which organizes organisms into a hierarchy of categories based on their similarities and differences. This system includes kingdoms, phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. Each level of classification is based on increasingly specific shared characteristics.

 

Overall, binomial nomenclature provides a standardized and precise way of naming and identifying organisms that is essential for communication among scientists and for understanding the diversity of life on Earth.

Taxonomy : The Classification of Organisms

Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the scientific study of how organisms are classified and organized. It involves grouping organisms into categories called taxa, which are based on their shared characteristics. There are several taxonomic levels, or ranks, that are used to classify organisms, each with its own unique set of characteristics. These levels are called taxons.

The taxonomic hierarchy, from the broadest to the most specific, includes the following seven taxonomic ranks:

1. Kingdom:

This is the broadest and highest level of classification, and it groups organisms into five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Each kingdom represents a distinct group of organisms with unique characteristics.

2. Phylum:

Phylum is the second level of classification and groups organisms into different major groups based on their body plan and structural organization.

3. Class:

Class is the third level of classification and groups organisms with similar characteristics that are more specific than those of the phylum.

4. Order:

Order is the fourth level of classification and groups organisms with similar characteristics that are more specific than those of the class.

5. Family:

Family is the fifth level of classification and groups organisms with similar characteristics that are more specific than those of the order.

6. Genus:

Genus is the sixth level of classification and groups organisms with similar characteristics that are more specific than those of the family.

7. Species:

Species is the most specific and basic level of classification, and it groups organisms based on their ability to interbreed and produce viable offspring.

Each taxon is based on shared characteristics, and as we move down the taxonomic hierarchy, the characteristics become more specific to the group of organisms being classified. Taxonomy provides a way for scientists to understand and study the diversity of life on Earth by organizing and categorizing organisms into groups based on their similarities and differences.

Classification of Organisms : The Five Kingdom System of Classification Explained.

Five Kingdom System of Classification

The five-kingdom system of classification was first proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969. This system is based on the fundamental differences between organisms at a cellular level, including their complexity, cell structure, and modes of nutrition. The five kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia, and each kingdom represents a distinct group of organisms with unique characteristics.

The five kingdoms of classification according to this system includes:

1. Kingdom Monera.

2. Kingdom Protista.

3. Kingdom Fungi.

4. Kingdom Plantae.

5. Kingdom Animalia.

1. Kingdom Monera:

The first kingdom, Monera, consists of the most primitive organisms, such as bacteria and blue-green algae. These organisms are unicellular and lack a true nucleus, making them prokaryotic. They reproduce asexually and are often found in extreme environments such as hot springs or deep-sea vents. Some bacteria can cause diseases, while others play important roles in various ecosystems such as nitrogen fixation.

2. Kingdom Protista:

The second kingdom, Protista, includes a diverse group of unicellular or colonial organisms such as amoebas, paramecia, and algae. Protists are eukaryotic, meaning they have a true nucleus and other organelles. They reproduce both asexually and sexually and can be found in a wide range of habitats, from freshwater ponds to oceanic depths. Some protists can cause disease, while others are important food sources for other organisms.

3. Kingdom Fungi:

The third kingdom, Fungi, includes organisms such as mushrooms, yeasts, and molds. Fungi are eukaryotic and are characterized by their ability to absorb nutrients from other organisms. They can be either unicellular or multicellular and reproduce both sexually and asexually. Fungi play important roles in decomposition and nutrient cycling in ecosystems.

4. Kingdom Plantae:

The fourth kingdom, Plantae, includes all multicellular plants. These organisms are eukaryotic and have specialized structures for photosynthesis, such as chloroplasts. They reproduce sexually and asexually and are important producers in ecosystems. Plants also provide food, shelter, and oxygen for other organisms.

5. Kingdom Animalia:

The fifth kingdom, Animalia, includes all multicellular animals. These organisms are eukaryotic and are characterized by their ability to move and respond to stimuli. They reproduce sexually and are found in a wide range of habitats, from the depths of the ocean to the tops of mountains. Animals play important roles in food webs and nutrient cycling in ecosystems.

The five-kingdom system of classification has been useful in organizing and categorizing the diversity of life on Earth. However, it is important to note that there is still much debate among biologists about the relationships between different groups of organisms, and new technologies such as DNA sequencing have led to the proposal of new classification schemes.

In conclusion, the five-kingdom system of classification provides a framework for understanding the diversity of life on Earth. Each kingdom represents a unique group of organisms with distinct characteristics, and this system has been useful in organizing and categorizing the vast array of life forms. However, as our understanding of biology continues to evolve, so too will our classification systems.

Freelancing : Explained A to Z, What, When, Where and How to start? The best website platforms for freelancers over the internet.!!

What is Freelancing?

Freelancing refers to a type of self-employment in which individuals offer their skills and services to clients on a project or contract basis, rather than being employed by a single employer. Freelancers typically work independently and remotely, and they may offer a wide range of services, such as writing, graphic design, web development, programming, social media management, translation, and more.

As a freelancer, individuals are responsible for finding their own clients, negotiating rates and contracts, managing their own schedules and finances, and delivering high-quality work on time. Freelancing can offer flexibility and autonomy, but it also requires a certain level of self-discipline, organization, and business savvy.

What Freelancers do?

Freelancers offer their skills and services to clients on a project or contract basis. Some common services that freelancers offer include:

1. Writing and editing: Freelance writers and editors create written content for various purposes, such as blog posts, articles, social media posts, marketing materials, and more.
2. Graphic design and illustration: Freelance designers and illustrators create visual content for print and digital media, such as logos, branding materials, web design, book covers, and more.
3. Web development and programming: Freelance developers and programmers build and maintain websites and web applications, create software, and provide technical support and troubleshooting.
4. Social media management: Freelance social media managers create and manage social media content and advertising campaigns for businesses and individuals.
5. Translation and language services: Freelance translators and interpreters provide language services for businesses and individuals, such as translating documents, interpreting meetings, and more.
6. Marketing and advertising: Freelance marketers and advertisers create and implement marketing strategies, conduct market research, and develop advertising campaigns for businesses and individuals.
7. Video and audio production: Freelance video and audio producers create and edit video and audio content for various purposes, such as commercials, documentaries, podcasts, and more.

Overall, freelancers provide a wide range of services to meet the needs of clients across various industries and fields.

How to start freelancing?

Starting a freelancing career can be a great way to work independently, set your own schedule, and work on projects you enjoy. Here are some steps you can take to start freelancing:

1. Identify your skills and services: Start by assessing your skills and deciding what services you can offer as a freelancer. Consider your strengths, interests, and past work experience.
2. Create a portfolio: Create a portfolio of your work to showcase your skills and demonstrate your experience to potential clients. Include examples of your best work and make sure your portfolio is easy to navigate and visually appealing.
3. Determine your pricing: Research the market rates for the services you offer to help you determine how much to charge. Consider your experience, the complexity of the project, and the client's budget when setting your rates.
4. Find clients: There are various ways to find clients as a freelancer, including networking, using freelance job platforms, cold pitching, and building a social media presence.
5. Manage your finances: As a freelancer, you are responsible for managing your own finances, including invoicing clients, tracking expenses, and paying taxes.
6. Establish good communication: It is important to establish clear communication with clients to ensure that you are both on the same page regarding expectations, timelines, and deliverables.
7. Provide excellent service: Deliver high-quality work on time and be responsive to client feedback and requests to build a positive reputation as a reliable and professional freelancer.

Starting a freelancing career takes time, effort, and dedication. However, with a strong portfolio, good communication skills, and a commitment to providing excellent service, you can build a successful freelance business.

Where to start freelancing?

There are several platforms and resources available to help you start freelancing. Here are some options to consider:

1. Freelance job platforms: There are several popular freelance job platforms, such as Upwork, Freelancer, Fiverr, and Guru. These platforms connect freelancers with clients looking for specific skills or services.
2. Social media: Building a social media presence can help you connect with potential clients and showcase your work. Platforms such as LinkedIn, Twitter, and Instagram can be useful for networking and marketing your services.
3. Personal website: Creating a personal website can help you showcase your portfolio, highlight your skills and services, and establish your brand as a freelancer.
4. Local networking events: Attending local networking events and meetups can help you connect with other freelancers and potential clients in your area.
5. Referrals: Word-of-mouth referrals from satisfied clients can be a powerful way to grow your freelancing business.

When starting out as a freelancer, it can be helpful to explore multiple options to find the best fit for your skills and services. Remember to be persistent, professional, and responsive to client needs to build a positive reputation and attract more clients over time.

The best website platforms for freelancers:

There are several freelance job platforms available, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Here are some of the most popular platforms that freelancers use to find work:

1. Upwork: Upwork is one of the largest and most popular freelance job platforms, with over 12 million freelancers and 5 million clients worldwide. It offers a wide range of job categories, including writing, design, programming, and customer service.
2. Freelancer: Freelancer is another popular freelance job platform that connects freelancers with clients in various industries. It offers a bidding system where freelancers can bid on projects and negotiate rates with clients.
3. Fiverr: Fiverr is a freelance platform that specializes in microjobs, where freelancers offer services for a starting price of $5. It offers a wide range of services, including graphic design, writing, programming, and digital marketing.
4. Guru: Guru is a freelance job platform that offers a range of job categories, including web development, design, writing, and legal services. It offers various payment options and a SafePay escrow system to ensure that freelancers get paid for their work.
5. Toptal: Toptal is a freelance platform that specializes in high-end talent, connecting businesses with top 3% of freelance talent in various fields, including software development, design, and finance.
6. 99designs: 99designs is a freelance platform that focuses on design services, including graphic design, logo design, and web design. Clients can launch contests and invite freelancers to submit design proposals.

When choosing a freelance platform, consider the type of work you specialize in, the platform's reputation and fees, and the quality of clients and jobs available. It may be helpful to try out several platforms to find the best fit for your skills and needs.

Human Skeleton : The Axial Skeleton & Appendicular Skeleton and Functions of Human Skeleton

Human Skeleton

The human skeleton is the internal framework of bones that provides support and shape to the body. The adult human skeleton typically consists of 206 bones, although the number can vary slightly depending on age, sex, and individual variation.

The human skeleton is divided into two main parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the bones of the skull, spine, and ribcage, while the appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs and the shoulder and pelvic girdles.

The bones of the human skeleton are made up of a combination of collagen fibers and calcium phosphate mineral. This gives them both strength and flexibility, allowing them to support the weight of the body while also allowing for movement.

In addition to providing support and shape to the body, the human skeleton also protects vital organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs. The bones also serve as attachment points for muscles, allowing the body to move and perform a wide range of activities.

Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton is one of the two main parts of the human skeleton, the other being the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, spine, and ribcage.

• The skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together, with the exception of the mandible (lower jawbone) and the ossicles in the ear. The skull encloses and protects the brain and supports the structures of the face and jaws.
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• The spine, also known as the vertebral column, is composed of 33 individual bones called vertebrae, which are separated by intervertebral discs. The vertebrae are grouped into five regions: cervical (neck), thoracic (upper back), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic), and coccygeal (tailbone). The spine supports the weight of the head and trunk, protects the spinal cord, and allows for movement of the torso.
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• The ribcage, also known as the thoracic cage, is composed of 12 pairs of ribs that attach to the thoracic vertebrae at the back and to the sternum (breastbone) at the front. The ribcage protects the heart, lungs, and other organs in the thoracic cavity, and also assists in breathing by expanding and contracting with each breath.

Overall, the axial skeleton provides support and protection to the vital organs of the body, and allows for movements such as bending, twisting, and turning of the head and torso.

Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is one of the two main parts of the human skeleton, the other being the axial skeleton. It consists of the bones of the limbs and their associated girdles, which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.

• The upper limb consists of the bones of the shoulder girdle (scapula and clavicle), the arm (humerus), the forearm (radius and ulna), the wrist (8 carpal bones), the hand (5 metacarpal bones), and the fingers (14 phalanges).
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• The lower limb consists of the bones of the pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, and pubis), the thigh (femur), the leg (tibia and fibula), the ankle (7 tarsal bones), the foot (5 metatarsal bones), and the toes (14 phalanges).
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• The shoulder girdle connects the upper limb to the axial skeleton and allows for a wide range of movement of the arm.
• The pelvic girdle connects the lower limb to the axial skeleton and provides stability for the body when standing or walking.
• The long bones of the limbs are responsible for supporting the weight of the body and allowing for movement, while the smaller bones of the hands and feet provide dexterity and fine motor control.

Overall, the appendicular skeleton allows for a wide range of movement and provides the body with the ability to perform complex tasks such as grasping objects, walking, running, jumping, and dancing.

Functions of Human Skeleton

The human skeleton has several important functions, including:

1. Support: The skeleton provides the framework that supports the body's weight and helps to maintain its shape.
2. Protection: The bones of the skeleton protect the body's internal organs, such as the brain, heart, and lungs.
3. Movement: The skeleton provides attachment points for muscles, allowing the body to move and perform a wide range of activities.
4. Mineral storage: The bones of the skeleton store important minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus, that are necessary for a variety of bodily functions.
5. Blood cell production: The bone marrow within certain bones of the skeleton is responsible for producing red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
6. Energy metabolism: The bone tissue can store energy in the form of lipids, which can be used by the body when needed.

Overall, the functions of the human skeleton are essential for supporting and maintaining the body's structure, protecting its vital organs, allowing for movement and physical activity, and regulating important bodily processes.

Cover Letter : What it means and How to write a cover letter that will stand you out of the crowd !!!

 COVER LETTER

A cover letter is a document typically submitted alongside a job application, internship application, or graduate school application that introduces the applicant and explains why they are applying for the position. The purpose of a cover letter is to demonstrate to the hiring manager or admissions committee that the applicant is a strong candidate for the role and that he or she has the skills and qualifications necessary to excel in the position.

A cover letter typically includes the applicant's contact information, the name and address of the recipient, an opening greeting, an introduction that explains why the applicant is interested in the position, a body that highlights the applicant's relevant skills and experiences, and a closing paragraph that expresses gratitude for the opportunity to apply and provides contact information for the applicant. A well-written cover letter can help a candidate stand out from other applicants and increase their chances of being selected for an interview or admitted to a program.

HOW TO WRITE AND EFFECTIVE AND TARGETTED COVER LETTER

Writing an effective cover letter can be a crucial step in landing a job interview or being admitted to a program. Here are some tips for writing an effective cover letter:

 

1. Tailor the letter to the specific job or program: Customize the letter to the job or program you are applying for. This shows that you have researched the company or institution and are genuinely interested in the opportunity.

Short Questions & Answers : Chemistry Class 9 - KP Boards - Unit: 1 - FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY

Answer briefly the following questions.

i.          How many elements are present in each of the following?

(a). HF and Hf       (b). Co and CO      (c). Si and SiO₂      (d). PoCl₂ and POCl₃

Answer:

        (a) HF have two elements (H & F) while Hf has one element (Hf).

        (b) Co has one element (Co) while CO has two elements (C and O).

       (c) Si has one element (Si) while SiO₂ has two elements (Si and O).

      (d) PoCl2 has two elements (Po and Cl) while POCl₃ has three elements (P, O and Cl).

ii.         Cm is the chemical symbol of curium, named after the famous scientist Madam curie. Why wasn’t the symbol C, Cu or Cr used instead?

Answer:

        It’s because the symbols C, Cu or Cr were already been taken and used for other elements in the periodic table, so for curium, it was decided to use the symbol Cm. The two letters C and m are taken from the initial and final letter of the element’s name.

iii.        What is the atomic number of an element? How does it differ from mass number?

Answer:

        Atomic number represented by Z can be defined as, “The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element or the number of electrons revolving around the nucleus”. While mass number represented by A is, “the sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of that element.” Mass number is also known as nucleon number.

iv.        Students often mix up the following elements. Give the name of each element.(a). Mg and Mn           (b). K and P                 (c). Na and S                (d). Cu and Co

Answer:

    (a). Mg = Magnesium and Mn = Manganese.

    (b). K = Potassium and P = Phosphorus.

    (c). Na = Sodium and S = Sulfur.

    (d). Cu = Copper and Co = Cobalt.

v.         (a). Classify the following molecules as mono-atomic, diatomic, tri-atomic and polyatomic molecules.

            H₂O, N₂, S₈, He, HCl, CO₂, Ar, H₂SO₄, C₆H₁₂O₆

            (b). Classify the following as cation, anions, molecular ion, free radical and molecules.

            CH₄⁺, O^-2, CH₃^., CO⁺, CO₂, Cl^-, Mg⁺², CO₃^-2, O₂, Na⁺, C₂H₅O^-1, H₂O, Cl₂

Answer:                    (a)	(b)
(a). Mono-atomic molecules: He, Ar	(a). Cations: Mg+2, Na+
(b). Diatomic molecules: N2, HCl	(b). Anions: O-2, Cl-, CO3-2, C2H5O-1
(c). Tri-atomic molecules: H2O, CO2	(c). Molecular ions: CH4+, CO+, CO3-2, C2H5O-1
(d). Polyatomic molecules: S8, H2SO4, C6H12O6	(d). Free radicals: CH3.
	(e). Molecules: CO2, O2, H2O, Cl2

  

Short Questions & Answers : Class 9 - KP Boards - Unit: 3 - BIODIVERSITY

 Question B: Give short answers for the following questions.

i.          How does deforestation lead to desertification?

Answer:

Deforestation means cutting of trees and converting forests into non-forest lands. In this way, with now trees on land, the biodiversity of the area is disturbed resulting in minimal biodiversity and conversion of forest lands into deserts.

ii.         Why is it important for a biologist to understand biological classification?

Answer:

Biological classification is aimed to make it easier for a biologist to study and understand living organisms in a better way. It is very important for a biologist to understand biological classification in order to study living things properly in relation of similarities and differences with other organisms. A biologist needs to have knowledge of classification system and groups as to relate an organism with a specific taxon and to study its characteristics.

iii.        What is the status of viruses in classification?

Answer:

Viruses are considered as infectious particles and on the boundary line between living and non-living organisms. As they are considered as particles not living organisms, viruses are not included in the classification system of living organisms. Although, viruses are of different types and have their own viral classifications system.

iv.        How you can differentiate between kingdom Monera and Protista?

Answer:

Kingdom Monera includes prokaryotic organisms which are unicellular or colonial with no distinct membrane bounded organelles in their cells, e.g., Bacteria. While Kingdom Protista includes Eukaryotic organisms which are unicellular or unicellular colonial organisms which do not make tissues, e.g., amoeba, paramecium, plasmodium etc.

v.         List down the endangered species of Pakistan and what are the reasons behind their population decrease?

Answer:

Endangered species of Pakistan: In Pakistan animals like Houbara bustard (talor) and Capra falconeri (markhor) while plants like yew, chilghoza and sanobar are listed as endangered species.

Reasons behind their population decrease include deforestation, overpopulation, overhunting and environmental pollution.

Short Questions & Answers : Class 9 - KP Boards - Unit: 2 - SOLVING A BIOLOGICAL PROBLEM

 Question B: Give short answers for the following questions.

i. What is a science? How does it work?
Answer:

Science can be defined as the study of the world through observations and experiments. It works in a very systematic and fantastic way known as scientific method, where first of all the scientific problem is identified and hypothesis are developed. Then, the hypothesis is tested through experiments. And in this way, most of the scientific problems are solved and discoveries are made.

ii. Control group is important for scientific study, how?
Answer:

Control group is important in scientific study as it allows the scientist to observe the difference in control and experimental group. It is important to corelate the results of experiments by comparing them with the control group to know the effects and whether the results support the hypothesis or not.

iii. What deductions were developed during the study of malaria?
Answer:

During the study of malaria, when the hypothesis. “Plasmodium is the cause of malaria” was made, to test this hypothesis the deduction developed was, “If Plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then all malarial patients should have Plasmodium in their blood”.

While when the hypothesis, “Mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium” was made, to test this hypothesis the deduction, “If Mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium, then Plasmodium should be present in mosquitoes” was made.

iv. How Ronald Ross conducted the experiment to prove that mosquitoes are involved in the spread of malaria?
Answer:

Ronald Ross was a British army physician, he performed an experiment in which he allowed a female anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient. He killed the mosquito and found Plasmodium in the stomach of mosquito. In his next experiment, he used sparrows instead of human beings as it was a risky approach. He allowed a female Culex mosquito to bite a sparrow suffering from malaria, he killed some of these mosquitoes and examined them. He found Plasmodium multiplied in the walls of the mosquito’s stomach and then moved to the mosquito’s salivary glands. He then allowed the infected Culex mosquito to bite a healthy sparrow and found that the priorly healthy sparrow got malaria and had Plasmodium in its blood. In this way, Ronald Ross proved that the hypothesis, “Mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium” is true and the problem was solved.

v. At what stage of the biological method, hypothesis is accepted or rejected?
Answer:

During biological method, after the experimental stage a hypothesis is accepted or rejected based on the results of the experiments. If the results of the experiments support the hypothesis, it is accepted while if the results of the experiment do not support the hypothesis, it is rejected.

Short Questions & Answers : Class 9 - KP Boards - Unit: 1 - INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

Question B: Write short answers for the following questions.

i. How the understanding of physics can help the biologist?

Answer:

Understanding physics refers to biophysics which deals with the study of living organisms based on the principles of physics. For example, to study the process of photosynthesis, a biologist needs to understand the laws of physics as to understand the absorption of sunlight and changes in energy during a biological reaction.

ii. Which career would you like to adopt after studying biology and why?

Answer:

I will choose Medicine and Surgery after studying biology by attending in MBBS. This is because, in this field I will become a doctor and can help those people with diseases. I want to become a cardiologist and my dream is to establish a fully facilitated cardiac hospital in my area.

iii. Write the translation of any three verses of the Holy Quran related to the creation of mankind.

Answer:

1. Verse No. 7, Surah Al-Sajda: Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay.

2. Verse No. 12, Surah Al-Mominoon: Verily We created man from a product of wet earth.

3. Verse No. 14, Surah Al-Rehman: He created man of clay like the potter’s.

iv. Name few Muslim Scientists and their contributions in the field of Biology?

Answer:

1. Jabir Bin Hayyan (721-815 AD): Introduction of experimental chemistry and many books on animals and plants including, “Al-Nabatat” and “Al-Hayawan”.

2. Bu Ali Sina (980-1037 AD): He worked on the structure, function and diseases of eye and described about 130 different diseases of eye in his book. His famous of “Al-Qanoon-fil-Tibb” has been translated into many languages.

3. Al-Farabi (870-950 AD): He wrote two books, “Kitab-ul-Nabatat” about plants and “Kitab-ul-Haywanat” about animals.

4. Ibn-Ul-Nafees: He described the circulation of blood in human body during the thirteenth century.

v. What level of organization is represented by Volvox?

Answer:

Volvox is a green alga. It represents colonial organization as it lives in colonies of hundreds of volvox cells together, each cell performing different and specialized function. A volvox cell cannot live independently as each cell of the colony depends on each other for different functions in the colony.