Chlorophyll - The Green Pigment in Plants and Algae

Chlorophyll:

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in algae and plants that plays a key role in photosynthesis. It is a complex molecule that absorbs light in the blue and red parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and reflects green light, giving plants their characteristic green color.

During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and uses it to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (a sugar) and oxygen. The glucose produced by photosynthesis is used by plants as an energy source, and the oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct.

There are different types of chlorophyll such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll c, and chlorophyll d that are found in different species of plants and algae, but chlorophyll a is the most common and important for photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll also has important functions in the plant such as protecting the plant from damage caused by UV radiation and acting as a natural antioxidant by scavenging free radicals.

Chlorophyll is found in green leafy vegetables, and it is considered as a natural supplement that has many health benefits such as improving digestion, reducing inflammation, and detoxifying the liver.

How to Make a Perfect and Catchy Proposal (Business, Research or Grant) that Will Boost Your Options for Getting in - Proposal Writing

Proposal:

A proposal is a document that outlines a plan, suggestion, or idea, and is typically used in a business or academic setting to persuade someone to approve or support the proposal.

A proposal can take many forms and can be used for various purposes, such as:

• Business proposals: outlining a new product or service or a plan for a new project.

• Research proposals: outlining a proposed study and its significance, methodology, and budget.

• Grant proposals: outlining a proposed project and its goals, objectives, and budget for funding from a government or private organization.

• Marketing proposals: outlining a plan for a new marketing campaign or a strategy for reaching new customers.

A proposal usually includes an introduction, background information, a description of the proposed plan or idea, a discussion of the benefits and potential drawbacks, a budget and a conclusion. Proposals are usually written for a specific audience and need to be carefully crafted to be persuasive and convincing.

A well-written proposal should be clear, concise, and well-organized, highlighting the benefits of the proposal while also addressing any potential concerns or objections.

Types of proposal:

There are many different types of proposals, each with its own unique purpose and structure. Some common types of proposals includes:

1. Business proposals: These are used to propose a new product or service, or to outline a plan for a new project. They typically include information on the market research conducted, a description of the proposed solution, and a financial analysis.
2. Research proposals: These are used to propose a new study or research project, and typically include information on the research question, the significance of the study, the proposed methodology, and a budget.
3. Grant proposals: These are used to apply for funding from government or private organizations, and typically include information on the proposed project, its goals and objectives, a budget, and a plan for evaluating the project's outcomes.
4. Marketing proposals: These are used to propose a new marketing strategy or campaign, and typically include information on target audiences, competitive analysis, proposed marketing tactics, and a budget.
5. Service proposals: These are used to propose a service to a client, it can be an IT service, consulting service, or any other service. It includes information about the service, the scope, and the cost.
6. Technical Proposals: These are used to propose a technical solution to a problem, usually in the field of engineering, construction, or technology. It includes information about the proposed solution, the cost, and the timeline.
7. Event Proposals: These are used to propose an event, like a conference, a meeting, or a festival, it includes information about the event, the goals, the target audience, and the budget.

It's important to note that each type of proposal may have its unique characteristics and requirements, and that a proposal should be tailored to the specific audience and purpose for which it is intended.

Steps in Making a Good Proposal:

The steps in making a proposal can vary depending on the type of proposal and the audience it is intended for. However, a general outline of the steps that are typically involved in making a proposal include:

1. Research and planning: Conduct research on the topic or problem that the proposal will address, identify the target audience, and gather information on similar proposals that have been made in the past.
2. Define the problem and objectives: Clearly define the problem or need that the proposal will address, and outline the specific objectives or goals of the proposal.
3. Develop a strategy: Create a plan or strategy for addressing the problem or achieving the objectives outlined in the proposal. This should include a detailed description of the proposed solution and the methods that will be used to implement it.
4. Create an outline: Organize the information and ideas gathered in the previous steps into a logical and coherent outline for the proposal.
5. Write the proposal: Use the outline to write the proposal, making sure to clearly and concisely present the problem, objectives, strategy, and any supporting data or research.
6. Review and edit: Review the proposal for any errors or inconsistencies, and edit it as needed to make it clear, concise, and persuasive.
7. Format and design: Make sure that the proposal is visually appealing and easy to read by formatting it professionally and including any relevant graphics or images.
8. Submit the proposal: Submit the proposal to the appropriate person or organization for review and consideration.

It's important to note that some steps may vary depending on the type of proposal you are making and who you are submitting it to. Additionally, some steps may require more time and resources than others.

A Proposal is mostly a text based document but sometimes, as per the medium of transmission and submission route, a proposal image can be a visual representation of the proposal's content, it can be a diagram, a chart, a graph, or a design that illustrates the main idea of the proposal.

It can also be a cover page design for the proposal document, it should be visually pleasing, professional, and relevant to the proposal's content. It can also include the proposal title, the name of the organization or the author, and the date of submission.

Images and other visual elements can help to make a proposal more engaging and easier to understand. However, it's important to ensure that any images used in a proposal are high-quality, relevant, and properly cited if they are not created by the author of the proposal.

130,000 Teachers Upgraded in the ‘last’ Cabinet Meeting by KP Govt.

In the ‘last’ cabinet meeting before the dissolution of the provincial assembly, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa government on Tuesday, the 18^th of January 2023, approved the upgradation of over 130,000 teachers at the yearly total of many billion rupees.

The cabinet met with Chief Minister Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Mr. Mahmood Khan in the chair and ministers and directorial secretaries in appearance.

Narrator for the government Barrister Mohammad Ali Saif later told reporters that the cabinet held its last meeting and discussed 23 items in agenda.

Mr. Shahram Khan Tarakai, the minister for Elementary and Secondary Education KP said, “the cabinet discussed the proposed upgradation of teachers of various cadres and We fulfilled our promise made to Primary School Teachers by upgrading their basic grade from BPS-12 to BPS-14. The initiative will benefit 51,736 teachers across the province.”

Policy on urban forestry, grant for press clubs were also approved by the cabinet.

The minister also said the grade of BPS-12 teachers would be upgraded to BPS-14 and 18,000 of BPS-14 to BPS-15 from 1^st July 2023. He said the grade BPS-15 of 21,300 school teachers would be upgraded to BPS-16.

Mr. Shahram Khan Tarakai also said, “the cabinet also approved grade upgradation for around 22,000 Secondary School Teachers (SSTs) from BPS-16 to BPS-17 from the next fiscal year.

He said approval was also fixed to the four-tier formula for the teachers serving in BPS-18, 19 and 20, a move that was likely to benefit around 14,000 staff members of educational institutions.

The minister said that the cabinet also approved the upgradation of the CT, PET, DM, TT and AT teachers from BPS-15 to BPS-16.

“Those serving on the CT posts will be upgraded to BPS-16 on July 1^st, 2023. However, the number of those teachers will be shared later,” he said.

Details available from estimates show that the upgradation of SSTs and PSTs alone was likely to cost the provincial exchequer over Rs. 2 billion annually.

Costs associated with up-gradation of CTs and four-tier formula for those in BPS-18 and above were in addition to this cost in estimation.

Similarly, he said that the cabinet also approved the establishment of the District Committees on the Status of Women (DCSW) and said those committees would be supervised by women and would contain two elected women councilors as members and others, and would work for the well-being of the women in addition to addressing their problems.

On the occasion, Mr. Saif said the cabinet also approved the one-time cash grant of Rs. 50 million for the Peshawar Press Club, Rs. 20 million for the Swat Press Club and Rs. 5 million for the Nowshera Press Club.

Besides, the cabinet also approved the provincial policy on urban forestry and a grant of Rs. 5 million as Annual Sustenance Fund for the Umeed Special Education School during the current fiscal years.

In addition, the cabinet allowed the transfer of three kanals of land for the establishment of Rescue 1122 station at Mouza Kakki-I in Kakki tehsil of Bannu district saying the facility will help provide prompt relief to the people during natural calamities and emergency situations.

Similarly, the cabinet relaxed the age for 77 assistant sub-inspectors of the police department, who were selected through the Public Service Commission four years ago.

Also, the cabinet decided the provision of Rs. 180 million supplementary budgets for the bulletproofing of 20 vehicles each for sensitive districts of the province.

It approved the Diseases Control Act, 2022, and KP Animals Welfare Act, 2022, to protect the livestock from diseases as well as Rs. 19.414 billion annual budgets of the Pakhtunkhwa Highways Authority for the construction of highways.

 

Source: dawn.com

ENZYMES: The enzymes mechanism, active site, Lock and Key Model and Induced fit Hypothesis - Chemical catalysis

Topics Included:

• Active Site
• Transition State
• Catalysis
• Lock and Key
• Induced Fit
• Nonproductive Binding
• Entropy
• Chemical Catalysis

Enzymes do two important things:

They recognize very specific substrates, and they perform specific chemical reactions on them at fantastic speeds. The way they accomplish all this can be described by a number of different models, each one of which accounts for some of the behavior that enzymes exhibit. Most enzymes make use of all these different mechanisms of specificity and/or catalysis. In the real world, some or all of these factors go into making a given enzyme work with exquisite specificity and blinding speed.

ACTIVE SITE:

The active site is a specialized region of the enzyme where the enzyme interacts with the substrate. The active site of an enzyme is generally a pocket or cleft that is specialized to recognize specific substrates and catalyze chemical transformations. The interactions between the active site and the substrate occur via the same forces that stabilize protein structure: hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions (charge–charge), hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals interactions. Enzyme active sites do not simply bind substrates; they also provide catalytic groups to facilitate the chemistry and provide specific interactions that stabilize the formation of the transition state for the chemical reaction.

CATALYSIS:

The reaction happens at a faster rate. The catalyst is regenerated. Enzymes do chemistry. Their role is to make and break specific chemical bonds of the substrates at a faster rate and to do it without being consumed in the process. At the end of each catalytic cycle, the enzyme is free to begin again with a new substrate molecule.

Since catalysis is simply making a reaction go faster, it follows that the activation energy of a catalyzed (faster) reaction is lower than the activation energy of an uncatalyzed reaction. It’s possible to say, then, that enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of the reaction they catalyze. This is the same as saying that enzymes work because they work. The question is how they lower the activation energy.

LOCK AND KEY Model:

Specificity model: The correct substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme like a key into a lock. Only the right key fits.

This is the oldest model for how an enzyme works. It makes a nice, easy picture that describes enzyme specificity. Only if the key fits will the lock be opened. It accounts for why the enzyme only works on certain substrates, but it does not tell us why the reaction of the correct substrates happens so fast. It doesn’t tell us the mechanism of the lock.

INDUCED FIT:

The binding of the correct substrate triggers a change in the structure of the enzyme that brings catalytic groups into exactly the right position to facilitate the reaction.

In the induced-fit model, the structure of the enzyme is different depending on whether the substrate is bound or not. The enzyme changes shape (undergoes a conformation change) on binding the substrate. This conformation change converts the enzyme into a new structure in which the substrate and catalytic groups on the enzyme are properly arranged to accelerate the reaction. “Bad” substrates cannot cause this conformation change.

Although water and glucose are chemically similar, hexokinase catalyzes the transfer of phosphate to glucose about 105 times faster than it catalyzes the transfer of phosphate to water. The induced-fit model would argue that the fancy part of the glucose molecule is necessary to induce the enzyme to change its conformation and become an efficient catalyst. Even though the fancy part of the glucose molecule is not directly involved in the chemical reaction, it participates in the enzyme-catalyzed reaction by inducing a change in the structure of the enzyme. Since water doesn’t have this extra appendage, it can’t cause the conformation change and is, therefore, a poor substrate for this enzyme. The induced fit-model would say that in the unreactive conformation of the enzyme, the ATP is 105 times less reactive than when the enzyme is in the reactive conformation.

What the induced-fit model is good at explaining is why bad substrates are bad, but like the lock and key model, it too fails to tell us exactly why good substrates are good. What is it about the “proper” arrangement that makes the chemistry fast?

NONPRODUCTIVE BINDING:

Poor substrates bind to the enzyme in a large number of different ways, only one of which is correct. Good substrates bind only in the proper way.

Again, this model tells us why poor substrates don’t work well. Poor substrates bind more often to the enzyme in the wrong orientation than in the right orientation. Since poor substrates bind in the wrong orientation, the catalytic groups and specific interactions that would accelerate the reaction of the correct substrate come into play in only a very small number of the interactions between the enzyme and a bad substrate. In contrast to the induced-fit model, this model does not require a change in the conformation of the enzyme (Fig. 7-4). In the hexokinase reaction discussed earlier, the nonproductive binding model

would say that only 1 out of 105 water molecules binds to the enzyme in a productive fashion but all the glucose binds in a productive orientation.

ENTROPY:

Organizing a reaction at the active site of an enzyme makes it go faster.

When molecules react, particularly when it’s the reaction between two different molecules or even when it’s a reaction between two parts of the same molecule, they must become more organized. The reason is that the two reacting atoms must approach each other in space. Just finding the appropriate partner is often a tough part of the reaction (biochemistry mimics life once more). Part of the free-energy barrier to a chemical reaction is overcoming unfavorable entropy changes that must accompany the formation of the transition state. By binding two substrates at the same active site, the enzyme organizes the reacting centers.

This reduces the amount of further organization that must occur to reach the transition state for the reaction, making the free energy of activation lower and the reaction faster. Of course, the enzyme must find each of the substrates and organize them at the active site—this is entropically unfavorable too. However, the price paid for organizing the substrates can be taken out of the binding free energy.

CHEMICAL CATALYSIS:

The amino acid side chains and enzymes cofactors provide functional groups that are used to make the reaction go faster by providing new pathways and by making existing pathways faster.

Many chemical reactions can be made to occur faster by the use of appropriately placed catalytic groups. Enzymes, because of their three-dimensional structure, are great at putting just the right group in the right place at the right time. Take the simple reaction of the addition of water to a carbonyl group. We can talk about two factors with this one reaction. The carbonyl group is reactive toward water because the carbonyl group is polarized, the electrons are not shared equally between the carbon and the oxygen. The carbon atom has fewer of them (because oxygen is more electronegative). As the water attacks the carbonyl oxygen, the electrons in the bond being broken, shift to oxygen, giving it a formal negative charge. Putting a positively charged group near the oxygen of the carbonyl group polarizes the carbonyl group and makes the carbonyl more reactive by helping stabilize the development of negative charge on oxygen as the chemical reaction proceeds.

Now let’s look at what we can do with the water. Because it has more negative charge (a higher electron density), _OH is more reactive than HOH. By providing an appropriately placed base to at least partially remove one of the protons from the attacking water molecule, we can increase the reactivity of this water and make the reaction go faster. This is known as acid–base catalysis and is widely used by enzymes to help facilitate the transfer of protons during chemical reactions. Another alternative is for the enzyme to actually form a covalent bond between the enzyme and the substrate. This direct, covalent participation of the enzyme in the chemical reaction is termed covalent catalysis. The enzyme uses one of its functional groups to react with the substrate. This enzyme–substrate bond must form fast, and the intermediates must be reasonably reactive if this kind of catalysis is going to give a rate acceleration.

Reference book: Basic Concepts in Biochemistry (Second edition) by Hiram F. Gilbert, (PhD.), McGraw-Hill

How to Prepare for a Job Interview Effectively!!

 

Preparing for an interview takes a lot more than googling a list of common interview interrogations (though yes, you should 100% be ready for those). You have to make a great first imprint (no showing up in wrinkly suits or running late!), know about the company and its goods and task, and, of course, convey precisely why you’d be a great hire for this career.

So, to help you prepare, here is a list of our all-time best pre-interview guidelines. From strategizing about how to tackle the toughest questions to packing your bag, we’ve got you covered. Learn everything you can about the company, the job, and the interview. A lot of your interview preparation will depend on the specifics surrounding the job, the company, and even who is interviewing you and how.

1. Research about the company:

Spend a few hours learning everything you can about the company from as many sources as you can. Talk to people in your network to find current and previous employees, read current news releases, and, yes, spend some time on Google. Often, candidates just look at the information a company is pushing out on its own website and social media accounts, but fail to look more in depth at what others are saying. By looking at multiple sources, you’ll get a broader picture of the company (along with any negative press), and be ready to talk about why you’d like to work there and what you can do for them.

2. Learn everything you can about the open position:

Before you can show your interviewer why you’d be a great hire, you need to know what they’re looking for. Luckily, most organizations have laid out exactly what they want in an applicant in the job posting. So go back to the description you looked at before you applied. What skills and experiences are they emphasizing? What problems will this hire need to solve? These are the things you’ll want to emphasize throughout your interview.

3. Try out the company’s product or service (if you can):

If the company you’re interviewing for sells a product you can feasibly check out—try it before your interview (ideally, a few times). If hired, your goal will be to create value for the people who use that product, and being a user, yourself is the first step. Plus, it’ll help show the hiring manager that you’re truly interested in the role.

4. Learn about the interviewers if you can:

If you’re not told who you’ll be meeting with during your interview, ask. For each interviewer, learn what their role at the company is and prep some questions that are specific to them. You can ask for details about their role, discuss current events related to their field, or bring up a common interest you know they have outside the office (just stick to one mentioned in an easily accessible spot, like their company bio or LinkedIn profile).

5. Find out what kind of interview you’re in for and prepare accordingly:

Different companies use different types of interviews, so ask what you’ll be faced with. For example, some companies will have you meet one on one with several different people at the company, while others might have you meet with multiple people at once or give an interview presentation. You may also have a phone or video interview. Asking the recruiter or HR contact about the interview format ahead of time is totally fair game. And once you know, investing time to become familiar with this style can make a huge difference.

6. Identify your selling points for this job:

Even if you’re a well-oiled interviewing machine, it’s essential to spend time thinking carefully about what skills, accomplishments, and interview answers will resonate with your interviewers most for this job. Your management abilities? Your creativity? Go back to your research and see what makes you most qualified.

7. Be ready to tell the interviewer about yourself:

For every interview, you’ll want to have an answer to “Tell me about yourself” that’s tailored to this job and company and ready to go. Interviewers almost always ask this question or a similar one, like “Walk me through your resume,” to start off the conversation, so you want to make sure you’re getting started on the right foot.

8. Know why you’re interested in this position at this company:

It’s likely you’ll get asked why you’re interested in this particular role and company. (And if you can’t answer this question, you shouldn’t be in the interview!) So, to make sure you can answer, identify a couple of key factors about the job and the organization that align well with your strengths, interests, and/or work style and get you excited about the position. Even if you’re not asked about this specifically, you can use this to inform your answers to other questions.

9. Do some salary research:

Even if you’re not ready to have the money conversation, you might still get asked about your salary expectations. To keep yourself from getting caught off guard and giving (or agreeing to) a way-too-low number, do a bit of salary research to figure out how you’d answer.

10. Prepare your stories:

Most interviewers will ask at least a few behavioral questions, that is, questions about how you’ve acted or would act in certain scenarios. While you can’t anticipate every possible situation you’ll be asked about, you can prepare a few stories about your past work experiences that you can adapt as needed.

11. Familiarize yourself with the STAR method:

Whenever you’re answering interview questions with a story, you want to make sure that story is well structured and the takeaway is clear. Your goal should be to give your interviewer all the context they need to understand what happened while still answering the question clearly and concisely. One way to do this is using the STAR method. STAR stands for:

Situation: Briefly lay out the scenario using just enough detail that the interviewer will understand the stakes and everything else in your answer.

Task: Talk about what your role in the situation was.

Action: Discuss what you did and why.

Result: Tell your interviewer about the outcome and what you learned.

Note that for some questions you might want to tweak this structure slightly. For example, if you’re talking about a time, you demonstrated leadership skills, consider defining what leadership means to you before jumping into the situation. But the STAR method will ensure your stories always have a beginning, middle, and end.

12. Jot down important numbers and details:

Don’t forget about the numbers! Find some revenue figures, engagement numbers, budget or team sizes, percentages of time saved, or anything else you can use to communicate your impact. Throwing in some hard numbers when talking about your responsibilities and accomplishments or answering behavioral interview questions really sweetens the deal and helps you tell a hiring manager why you’re so awesome. You can even write them down so you can refer to them during the interview. (Here’s how to quantify your accomplishments, even if you don’t work with numbers.)

13. Brush up on your interview skills:

How well you answer interview questions isn’t everything—though it is a lot. Interviewers are also consciously or subconsciously picking up on how well you use other interview skills such as active listening, small talk, and empathy. These skills not only help you impress an interviewer, but also give them a sense of what it might be like to work you as a colleague.

14. Practice common interview questions:

You can and should familiarize yourself with common interview questions, but don’t prepare by writing out your entire answer; instead, jot down a few notes or bullet points and keep them on hand for the interview itself. You’ll ensure you cover the bases, without reading from a script. Practice looking in the mirror and answering them out loud. This prep work will help you clarify your thoughts and make you much more comfortable during the interview.

15. Think about body language:

Brush up on what certain body language conveys. Be aware of what you’re communicating through your posture and stance—and make sure it’s good. (For example, sitting with your arms and legs crossed sends a message that you are closed-off or feel defensive.) Think your movements through ahead of time so you’re not distracted (or distracting) during the interview. If you’re on video, think about how you’ll show that you’re actively engaged in that format—putting the Zoom window near your camera so you’re not looking away from your interviewer, for example, or making non-verbal gestures or expressions to show that you’re listening without cutting off their microphone.

16. Try some mock interviews:

If you have the time, do a few mock interviews with a friend or loved one. You’ll be much better at answering, “What would you bring to the position?” the 100th time you do it and you’ll know ahead of time where you want to put your hands or how you want to sit.

17. Write down questions you’ll ask them:

Most interviews will wrap up with “Do you have any questions for me?” and you should absolutely have some questions. You can start with this list of interview questions to ask, but you should also plan some questions that are very specific to the job and company. And prepare more than you think you’ll need—you don’t want to ask questions that have already been answered or be left without any backup options if the interviewer already touched on your first two questions during your conversation.

18. Plan for what you’ll do if you’re caught off guard:

You can’t prepare for everything, but you can prepare to handle the unexpected—like an interview question you don’t know how to answer. For example, you can come up with a go-to phrase that’ll help you avoid dead air if you need time to stall and gather your thoughts. Two strategies that work well are repeating the question thoughtfully before answering or saying (slowly), “Now, that is a great question. I think I would have to say…"

19. Prepare for technical interviews or skill tests:

If you’re getting ready for a technical interview or you’ve been told there will be a skill test during your interview, start preparing and practicing as early as possible. Working through a prep book or sample questions will not only give you good practice, but it’ll also put you in the right problem-solving mindset.

 

 

Source: The Muse

Website link: https://www.themuse.com/advice/the-ultimate-interview-guide-30-prep-tips-for-job-interview-success